7
9
10 letter
14 Humanism and the Body
16 Enlightenment and Abstraction
22 Monster Fonts
26 Reform and Revolution
28 Type as Program
30 Type as Narrative
32 Back to Work
36 Anatomy
38 Size
42 Scale
46 Type Classification
48 Type Families
50 Superfamilies
52 Capitals and Small Capitals
54 Mixing Typefaces
56 Numerals
58 Punctuation
60 Ornaments
64 Lettering
68 Logotypes and Branding
72 Typefaces on Screen
74 Bitmap Typefaces
76 Typeface Design
78 Exercise: Modular Letterforms
80 Font Formats
82 Font Licensing
84 text
88 Errors and Ownership
90 Spacing
92 Linearity
96 Birth of the User
102 Kerning
104 Tracking
106 Exercise: Space and Meaning
108 Line Spacing
112 Alignment
118 Exercise: Alignment
120 Vertical Text
124 Enlarged Capitals
126 Marking Paragraphs
130 Captions
132 Hierarchy
144 Exercise: Hierarchy
146 Exercise: Long Lists
148 grid
152 Grid as Frame
160 Dividing Space
164 Grid as Program
170 Grid as Table
174 Return to Universals
176 Golden Section
178 Single-Column Grid
180 Multicolumn Grid
194 Modular Grid
202 Exercise: Modular Grid
204 Data Tables
206 Exercise: Data Tables
208 APPeNdix
210 Spaces and Punctuation
212 Editing
214 Editing Hard Copy
215 Editing Soft Copy
216 Proofreading
218 Free Advice
220
222
coNteNts
-
anatomy
36 |
Bone
The distance from the
baseline to the top of the
capital letter determines
the letter’s point size.
skin, Body
is where all the
letters sit. This is the most stable
axis along a line of text, and it
is a crucial edge for aligning text
with images or with other text.
The curves at the
bottom of letters hang slightly
below the baseline. Commas
and semicolons also cross the
baseline. If a typeface were not
positioned this way, it would
appear to teeter precariously.
Without overhang, rounded
letters would look smaller than
their flat-footed compatriots.
Some elements may
extend slightly above
the cap height.
Hey, look!
They supersized
my x-height.
Two blocks of text
are often aligned along
a shared baseline.
Here, 14/18 Scala Pro
(14-pt type with 18 pts
of line spacing) is paired
with 7/9 Scala Pro.
Although kids learn to write using
ruled paper that divides letters
exactly in half, most typefaces are
not designed that way. The
x-height usually occupies more
than half of the cap height. The
larger the x-height is in relation
to the cap height, the bigger the
letters appear to be. In a field of
text, the greatest density occurs
between the baseline and the
x-height.
- is the height of the
main body of the lowercase letter
(or the height of a lowercase x),
excluding its ascenders and
descenders.
| 37
The length of a letter’s
descenders contributes
to its overall style and
attitude.
, -
Attempts to standardize the
measurement of type began in the eighteenth
century. The point system is the standard used
today. One point equals 1/72 inch or .35
millimeters. Twelve points equal one pica, the
unit commonly used to measure column widths.
Typography can also be measured in inches,
millimeters, or pixels. Most software applications
let the designer choose a preferred unit of
measure; picas and points are standard defaults.
nerd alert:
picas = p
points = p, pts
picas, points = p
-point Helvetica with points of line spacing =
/ Helvetica
A letter also has a horizontal measure,
called its set width. The set width is the body of
the letter plus a sliver of space that protects it
from other letters. The width of a letter is intrinsic
to the proportions and visual impression of the
typeface. Some typefaces have a narrow set width,
and some have a wide one.
You can change the set width of a typeface by
fiddling with its horizontal or vertical scale.
This distorts the line weight of the letters,
however, forcing heavy elements to become thin,
and thin elements to become thick. Instead of
torturing a letterform, choose a typeface that has
the proportions you are looking for, such as
condensed, compressed, wide, or extended.
size
12 points
equal 1 pica
6 picas
(72 points)
equal 1 inch
60-
A typeface is measured
from the top of the
capital letter to the
bottom of the lowest
descender, plus a small
buffer space.
In metal type,
the point size
is the height of
the type slug.
Wide load
tight wad
tight Wad
The set width is the body of the letter
plus the space beside it.
The letters in the compressed version of the typeface
have a narrower set width.
type crime
The proportions of the letters have been
digitally distorted in order to create wider
or narrower letters.
Big
Wide load
38 |
When two typefaces are set in the same point size, one often
looks bigger than the other. Differences in x-height, line weight,
and set width affect the letters’ apparent scale.
Mrs Eaves rejects the twentieth-century appetite
for supersized x-heights. This typeface, inspired
by the eighteenth-century designs of Baskerville,
is named after Sarah Eaves, Baskerville’s
mistress, housekeeper, and collaborator.
The couple lived together for sixteen years
before marrying in 1764.
Like his lovely wife, MR EAVES has a low waist
and a small body. His loose letterspacing also
makes him work well with his mate.
The size of a typeface is a matter of context. A line of text that
looks tiny on a television screen may appear appropriately
scaled in a page of printed text. Smaller proportions affect
legibility as well as space consumption. A diminutive x-height is a
luxury that requires sacrifice.
12/14
8/10
The x-height of a typeface affects its
apparent size, its space efficiency,
and its overall visual impact. Like
hemlines and hair styles, x-heights
go in and out of fashion. Bigger type
bodies became popular in the mid-
twentieth century, making letterforms
look larger by maximizing the area
within the overall point size.
Because of its huge x-height, Helvetica can remain
legible at small sizes. Set in 8 pts for a magazine
caption, Helvetica can look quite elegant. The same
typeface could look bulky and bland, however, standing
12 pts tall on a business card.
Typefaces with small x-heights, such as
Mrs Eaves, use space less efficiently than
those with big lower bodies. However, their
delicate proportions have lyrical charm.
12/14
12/14
8/10
Do Ilook fat in this paragraph?
32-
32-
32-
32-
The default type size in many software applications is 12 pts.
Although this generally creates readable type on screen displays,
12-pt text type usually looks big and horsey in print. Sizes between 9
and 11 pts are common for printed text. This caption is 7.5 pts.
32-
32-
32-
| 39
Mr. Big versus Mrs. & Mr. Little
40 |
All the typefaces shown below were inspired by
the sixteenth-century printing types of Claude
Garamond, yet each one reflects its own era.
The lean forms of Garamond 3 appeared during
the Great Depression, while the inflated x-height
of ITC Garamond became an icon of the
flamboyant 1970s.
1930s: Franklin D. Roosevelt, salvador dalí, Duke
Ellington, Scarface, chicken and waffles, shoulder pads, radio.
1970s: Richard Nixon, Claes Oldenburg, Van Halen,
The God father, bell bottoms, guacamole, sitcoms.
1980s: Margaret Thatcher, barbara kruger, Madonna,
Blue Velvet, shoulder pads, pasta salad, desktop publishing.
2000s: Osama Bin Laden, , the White
Stripes, e Sopranos, mom jeans, heirloom tomatoes, Twitter.
18- 3, designed by Morris Fuller Benton and Thomas Maitland Cleland for ATF, 1936
18- , designed by Tony Stan, 1976
18- , designed by Robert Slimbach, 2005
18- , designed by Robert Slimbach, 1989
Grapes of Wrath
30- 3
30-
size
garamond in the twentieth century: variations on a theme
| 41
are slim, high-strung prima donnas.
are isky supporting characters.
is the everyman of the printed stage.
get heavy to play small roles.
27-
A type family with optical sizes has different styles
for different sizes of output. The graphic designer
selects a style based on context. Optical sizes
designed for headlines or display tend to have
delicate, lyrical forms, while styles created for text
and captions are built with heavier strokes.
27-
27-
27-
8
80
A or headline style looks
spindly and weak when set at small
sizes. Display styles are intended for
use at pts. and larger.
In the era of , type designers created a different
punch for each size of type, adjusting its weight, spacing, and
other features. Each size required a unique typeface design.
When the type design process became automated in
the , many typefounders
economized by simply enlarging or reducing a base
design to generate different sizes.
This to type sizes
became the norm for photo and digital type
production. When a text-sized letterform is
enlarged to poster-sized proportions, its thin
features become too heavy (and vice versa).
Basic styles are designed
for sizes ranging from to
pts. Their features are strong
and meaty but not too assertive.
styles are built with
the heaviest stroke weight.
They are designed for sizes
ranging from to pts.
optical sizes
10
No Job Too Small
48-
8-
type crime
Some typefaces that work well
at large sizes look too fragile
when reduced.
42 |
scale
Scale is the size of design elements in comparison
to other elements in a layout as well as to the
physical context of the work. Scale is relative.
12-pt type displayed on a 32-inch monitor can look
very small, while 12-pt type printed on a book
page can look flabby and overweight. Designers
create hierarchy and contrast by playing with the
scale of letterforms. Changes in scale help create
visual contrast, movement, and depth as well as
express hierarchies of importance. Scale is
physical. People intuitively judge the size of
objects in relation to their own bodies and
environments.
tHe
world
is FlAt
tHe
world
is FlAt
type crime
Minimal differences in
type size make this
design look tentative
and arbitrary.
The strong contrast between
type sizes gives this design
dynamism, decisiveness,
and depth.
Typographic installation at Grand
Central Station, New York City, 1995. Designer: Stephen Doyle.
Sponsors: The New York State Division of Women, the
Metropolitan Transportation Authority, Revlon, and Merrill
Lynch. Large-scale text creates impact in this public installation.
| 43
-: , ,
Book cover, 2003. Designers: Paul Carlos and Urshula
Barbour/Pure + Applied. Author: Warren Niedich. Cropping the
letters increases their sense of scale. The overlapping colors suggest
an extreme detail of a printed or photographic process.
Niedich_6cover.indd 1 12/12/09 2:55:30 PM
scale
44 |
’ ()
Maps, 2009. Design: Harry Pearce and Jason Ching/
Pentagram
. This series of posters for the United Nations’ Office on
Drugs and Crime uses typographic scale to compare drug treatment
programs, HIV incidence, and other data worldwide. The designers
built simple world maps from country abbreviation codes (GBR,
USA, RUS, etc.). The posters are aimed specifically at the Russian
police, whose country has a poor track record in drug treatment.
Note Russia’s high incidence of HIV and low availability of
addiction rehabilitation programs.
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